General knowledge (GK) has been defined in differential psychology as 'culturally valued knowledge communicated by a range of non-specialist media' [1] This definition excludes highly specialized learning that can only be obtained with extensive training, as well as 'ephemera', that is, information confined to a single medium, such as television sitcoms. General knowledge therefore encompasses a wide range of knowledge domains.[1] GK is an important component of crystallized intelligence and is associated with openness to experience. Studies using factor analysis have found that all specific domains of knowledge tested were positively intercorrelated and were substantially related to a higher order general factor.[1][2][3][4] General knowledge therefore seems to be supported by long-term semantic memory ability.[2] A number of studies have found that males tend to have greater overall GK than females, perhaps due to gender differences in interests rather than memory ability.[1] Recent studies have found that GK is associated with achievement areas including exam performance in schoolchildren,[5] and proofreading skills.[6] GK seems to have only a weak relationship with creativity.[7] Many game shows such as Mastermind utilise general knowledge questions.
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Differential psychology researchers attempting to develop a GK test covering all major areas of GK in western cultures, defined GK as 'culturally valued knowledge communicated by a range of non-specialist media'.[1] The scope of this definition therefore includes all areas of knowledge available to laypersons without requiring extensive training. The definition excludes 'ephemera', that is, information confined to a single medium, such as television sitcoms. The researchers identified 19 domains of knowledge that met the definition provided above: History of Science, Politics, Sport, History, Classical Music, Art, Literature, General Science, Geography, Cookery, Medicine, Games, Discovery and Exploration, Biology, Film, Fashion, Finance, Popular Music, and Jazz and Blues. (Popular music and Jazz and Blues were originally designated as a single domain but factor analysis suggested that they were better considered as distinct domains.) The researchers acknowledged that other domains of general knowledge may exist. Factor analysis suggested that the 19 domains could be categorised into six factors comprising current affairs, fashion, family, physical health and recreation, arts, and science. All six of these factors were highly intercorrelated and were all related to a single higher-order GK factor. The existence of a single, general factor suggests that individual differences across a range of knowledge domains may have common causes, although specific influences, such as particular interest in an area of knowledge and educational course content appear to be important contributors.[1][3]
Studies have consistently found that high scorers on tests of GK tended to score highly on intelligence tests. Studies using multiple regression found that IQ score robustly predicted GK scores even after controlling for age, sex, and five factor model personality traits.[8][9][10] In the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of intelligence, GK is considered a component of crystallized intelligence. Standardized IQ tests may therefore include measures of general knowledge, for example the Information subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).[1] GK has been found to be moderately correlated with tests of verbal ability, and only weakly or not at all with tests of numerical and spatial ability.[3] Like crystallized intelligence, GK has been found to increase with age.[11]
Research has found positive intercorrelations between different domains of knowledge, suggesting that individuals who are highly knowledgeable in a particular domain usually have a good long-term memory for information generally. [1][3] Personal interests, as well as general memory ability, also seem to influence how much knowledge a person acquires within a specific domain.[4] Due to the positive intercorrelations between knowledge domains, individual differences in general knowledge may reflect a broad ability to retrieve information from long-term semantic memory.[1] A general factor of long-term semantic memory could be explained by the existence of an underlying neurophysiological process or processes responsible for retaining information in long-term memory, such as the transmission across synapses. Individual differences in the efficiency of such processes might explain why all domains of semantic memory appear to be intercorrelated.[1]
General knowledge has been found to correlate positively with the personality domain openness to experience[8][9][10][11] and with typical intellectual engagement.[9][10] A number of studies have found that the relationship between openness to experience and GK remains robust even when taking IQ into account.[8][10] People high in openness may be more motivated to engage in intellectual pursuits that increase their knowledge.[10] Relationships between GK and other five factor model traits tend to be weak and inconsistent. One study found that extraversion and neuroticism were negatively correlated with GK[9], while other studies found that these traits were unrelated to GK.[8][11] Inconsistent results have also been found for conscientiousness (Furnham et al.[8] found positive correlations with GK in studies 1 and 3, but no significant relationship in study 2; other studies found no significant relationship[9][11]).
Research has found that on average males tend to score higher than females on tests of overall general knowledge and in most domains of knowledge tested.[1][4][12][13] A number of studies found that males scored significantly higher than females in the Information subtest of the WAIS (effect sizes ranging from d = .18 to d = .65, i.e. small to medium sized effects).[1] Ackerman et al. (2001) compared male and female university students in 19 domains of academic knowledge and found that males had significantly greater knowledge in 14 of these domains.[4] The male advantage in this study was greatest in the physical science/technology domains (with d = 1.0, or 1 standard deviation on technology and electronics tests, a large effect), although males also scored moderately higher in humanities and civics domains. The only one of the 20 domains in which females showed a slight and non-significant advantage was psychology (d = .01). A GK composite (across all 19 tests) showed a medium sized male advantage (d = .68). A study of university students in Northern Ireland found that males scored significantly higher in their overall GK score than females (d = .51), and significantly higher in 12 of 19 specific knowledge domains.[1] Females scored significantly and moderately higher than males in the two domains of medicine (d = -.32) and cookery (d = -.48). The authors of this study suggested that this male advantage probably reflects differences in interests rather than differences in verbal or memory ability.[1] Similar results were found in a study of German high school students.[13] A study by Lynn and irwing (2002) found that male advantages in GK were not attributable to differences between males and females in reasoning ability (i.e. fluid intelligence), socio-economic status or differential exposure to school course content (assessed through A-level performance).[12]
A number of recent studies have assessed whether performance on a GK test can predict achievement in particular areas, namely academic achievement[5], proofreading skills[6], and creativity.[7]
GK has been found to predict exam results in a study of British schoolchildren.[5] The study examined cognitive ability and personality predictors of exam performance 10 months after the study began and found that scores in a GK test were strongly positively correlated with GCSE English, Mathematics, and overall exam results. Multiple regression analyses showed that GK test scores significantly predicted exam results, even after controlling for IQ, Five Factor model personality traits, and learning styles.
GK has been found to robustly predict predict proofreading skills in university students.[6] The study found that GK had a larger correlation (r = .61) with proofreading than general intelligence, verbal reasoning, or openness to experience (all of which had significant positive correlations). A multiple regression analysis was performed using GK, general intelligence, verbal reasoning, Five Factor model personality traits, and learning styles as predictors. GK was the only significant predictor in the analysis.
GK has been found to have weak associations with measures of creativity.[7] In a study examining contributions of personality and intelligence to creativity, GK was positively correlated with tests of divergent thinking, but was unrelated to a biographical measure of creative achievement, self-rated creativity, or a composite total measure of creativity. The relationship between GK and divergent thinking became non-significant when controlling for fluid intelligence.
Many game shows use general knowledge questions. Game shows such as Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? and Fifteen to One centre their questions on general knowledge. Other shows focus their questions on specific subjects. There are also shows that ask questions both on specific subjects and on general knowledge, including Eggheads and Mastermind. In Mastermind contestants choose their own 'specialist subject' before answering general knowledge questions, whereas in Eggheads the subjects are chosen at random from a pool of possible rounds.